Snake Fungal Disease (Ophidiomycosis)

Cause of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

Ophidiomycosis, formerly referred to as Snake Fungal Disease (SFD), is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. This fungus is thought to be an emergent pathogen in North America and poses a significant threat to snake health and population sustainability. To date, O. ophiodiicola has been documented in over 15 types of wild and captive snakes.

Significance of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

Ophidiomycosis is an emerging disease that affects wild and captive snakes across North America. The incidence of Ophidiomycosis has steadily increased over the last few years, specifically documented in California, Oklahoma, Puerto Rico, and Idaho.

Species Affected by Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

Ophidiomycosis can infect wild or captive snakes and is the predominant cause of skin infections in wild snakes. It has been documented in over 15 types of wild and captive snakes. Species confirmed with diagnosis of Ophidiomycosis include— the eastern indigo snake, the northern water snake, the eastern racer, the rat snake, the timber rattlesnake, the massasauga, the pygmy rattlesnake, garter snakes, cottonmouth snakes, the milk snake, queensnake, and eastern fox snake. The fungus causing Ophidiomycosis is not known to affect humans.

Distribution of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

As of November 2019, the fungus O. ophiodiicola has been found in at least 38 states, including recent findings in California, Idaho, Oklahoma. It is also present in one U.S. territory (Puerto Rico) and one Canadian Providence (Ontario). In some species (i.e., Eastern Massasauga) the mortality rate may be over 90% in the Eastern US.

Transmission of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

At this time, it is not well understood how the fungus causing Ophidiomycosis is spread. It is likely that the pathogen is shed into the environment by infected snakes and spread from the environment to other snakes (i.e., snakes that share dens). O. ophiodiicola may be spread via vertical transmission (i.e., from dam to offspring). There is no evidence of horizontal transmission (i.e., snake-to-snake transmission) of O. ophiodiicola. Host and environmental factors that lead to disease remain largely unknown. For example, it is thought that Timber rattlesnake populations are at higher risk of Ophidiomycosis in years with higher rainfall.

Clinical Signs of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

Clinical signs of SFD and the severity of the disease may vary by species. The most common clinical signs include accelerated ecdysis cycles, flaking and crusting of the scales/epidermis, displaced or discolored scales, granulomas, nodules, swelling or disfiguration of infected tissues. The disease may progress internally (via the eyes, throat, and/or lungs) and cause eye infections or pneumonia.

Diagnosis of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

Ophidiomycosis is diagnosed by identification of the classic clinical signs in combination with either molecular detection (PCR or qPCR) of the fungus, histopathology, and/or a positive fungal culture.

It must be noted that there may be difficulty in sampling for and detecting (by PCR/qPCR) O. ophiodiicola by skin/epidermal swabs (i.e., low DNA quantity on the skin or the fungi are deep within the epidermis). Therefore, hesitation should be taken in assigning causation to O. ophiodiicola to animals with skin lesions that are qPCR negative in the presence of skin lesions. There are numerous causes of skin lesions in wild snakes (i.e., trauma, another pathogen causing skin lesions, etc). Conversely, the absence of clinical signs of ophidiomycosis is more reliable to eliminate a diagnosis of apparent ophidiomycosis.

Treatment of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

Treatment with an antifungal, Terbinafine, either by a slow-release, long-lasting implant or nebulization has been found to reach therapeutic levels in cottonmouth snakes; methods and doses for treatment are thus based on these findings. Other treatment options include thermal and nutritional supportive therapy.

Management of Snake Fungal Disease / Ophidiomycosis

Ophidiomycosis appears to be negatively impacting several species and populations of snakes across North America. However, its long-term impact remains unknown. It is also very difficult to assess changing snake populations because of the solitary nature of many snakes and, importantly, the absence of long-term monitoring data for most species of snake. Any sightings of snakes with suspected SFD infection should be reported to the Northeast Wildlife Disease Cooperative and/or DTT Herp Disease Alert System for further investigation. Wildlife specialists, veterinarians, and any other individuals who routinely come in contact with wild snakes should keep gear, snake holding containers, and clothes clean and disinfected to prevent spreading the fungus to other snakes.

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Small Animal Care

Stargazing Syndrome in Snakes

When the cervical musculature of a snake contracts, the head and neck are raised almost straight up, as if the affected snake is gazing at the stars. Hence the term stargazing.

This seemingly innocent behavior is actually a sign of a potentially serious underlying medical problem. If you see this behavior with your snake, you need to consult with your veterinarian immediately.

Other symptoms that typically accompany stargazing include the inability of the snake to right itself when placed on it’s back, as well as disorientation.

Stargazing is typically attributed to a variety of diseases that affect a snake’s central nervous system. In fact encephalitis is the primary cause of this posture. However, there are other potential factors that need to be considered as possibilities.

8 common causes of stargazing in snakes

1. Viral infections such as paramyxovirus which typically attacks the neurological and respiratory systems of snakes. Typically viperids and colubrids are affected.

2. Inclusion Body Disease (IBD) which typically attacks the neurological, gastrointestinal and respiratory systems of boids (boas and pythons).

3. Bacterial infections such as acanthamoebic meningioencephalitis are often to blame as well.

4. Major organ dysfunction can also cause neurological problems.

5. Any sort of septic infections which can breach the blood-brain barrier.

6. Extreme temperature fluctuations.

7. Head injuries/trauma.

8. Exposure to toxins typically found via pest strips, cleaning products, mite sprays as well as any other number of environmental toxins can also cause various neurological problems.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Stargazing Syndrome in Snakes

In order to treat this condition properly, your veterinarian will thoroughly examine your snake as well as take a detailed medical history (don’t forget to bring any prior medical history records). Diagnostic tests might include fecal exams, x-rays, as well as a complete pathology workup (like bloodwork).

Once you know the underlying cause of the stargazing, you and your veterinarian can then work together to form an appropriate treatment plan.

Please remember however, that stargazing itself is not a disease – it is a symptom of a very serious underlying condition/disorder that must be treated.

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Related: We have more information under our small animal care categories.